MENTAL  EXAMINATION  OF  TWO 

THOUSAND  DELINQUENT 

BOYS  AND  YOUNG 

MEN 


M.  L.  Beanblossom. 


INDIANA  REFORMATORY 
Jefferson  ville 


Mental  Examination  of  Two  Thousand  Delinquent 
Boys   and    Young  Men. 


By 
M.  L.  Beanblossom,  A.  M. 


INDIANA  REFORMATORY  PRINT 


I 


Mental    Examination    of  Two    Thousand  Delinquent 
Boys  and  Young  Men 

The  material  which  furnishes  the  basis  of  this  dissertation  was 
worked  out  among  the  inmates  of  Indiana  Reformatory  through  a 
period  of  three  and  one-half  years.  Subjects  are  male,  varying  in 
chronological  age,  with  an  occasional  exception,  from  sixteen  to  thirty 
inclusive.  The  examination  was  given  as  soon  after  their  arrival  at  the 
Institution  as  was  deemed  advisable  for  the  best  results.  Usually  a 
period  of  three  weeks  elasped  before  the  examination  was  given.  This 
gave  ample  time  for  rest  and  composure  and  has  proved  satisfactory. 
As  far  as  possible,  the  examination  was  avoided  when  the  subject  was  for 
any  reason,  whatsoever,  physically  unfit.  In  case  it  became  necessary 
to  give  the  tests  under  unfavorable  circumstances,  a  special  classifica- 
tion was  given  and  explanation  noted.  Ordinarily  only  one  examination 
was  given  each  subject,  but,  if  for  any  reason,  the  first  was  unsatis- 
factory, then  one  or  more  subsequent  examinations  were  given.  In 
conjunction  with  the  regular  mental  investigation,  a  detailed  statement 
of  personal,  hereditary,  and  environmental  data  was  obtained.  This  not 
only  aided  materially  in  a  correct  mental  diagnosis,  but  was  of  immediate 
value  to  the  Institution. 

The  plan  of  this  paper  is  two-fold;  first  to  suggest  what  we  have 
found  to  be  some  of  the  more  valuable  psychological  tests  for  mental 
diagnosis,  especially  for  adults  and  those  nearing  that  age,  and  give  our 
method  of  evaluating  them;  secondly,  to  present  as  concisely  as  possible 
a  statistical  resume  of  results  obtained. 

Not  only  have  we  been  dealing  with  a  cosmopolitan  group  of 
individuals  of  every  race  and  tongue,  but  among  the  two  thousand  sub- 
jects, we  have  had  "dope"  fiends,  alcoholics,  syphilitics,  neurotics, 
epileptics,  psychopaths,  feeble-minded,  dements,  deaf-mutes,  sexual 
perverts,  "moral  imbeciles"*  (if  such  a  condition  exists),  albinos, 
mulattos,  dwarfs  (physical),  and  so  forth;  or  any  composition  of  two  or 
more  of  the  foregoing,  which  is  responsible  for  our  having  had  nearly 
every  possible  combination  of  physical,  moral,  and  mental  anomalies  and 
eccentricities.  Because  of  such  a  diversity  of  material,  it  was  neces- 
sary to  devise  a  rather  inclusive  means  of  classification.  After  a  num- 
ber of  attempts  and  revisions,  the  following  scale  was  found  to  be 
practicable  for  institutional  purposes  as  well  as  furnishing  an  adequate 
system  for  research. 

"Tredgold's  "Mental  Deficiency",  William  &  Wood  Co.,  New  York,  1914. 


371561 


A good  mentality 

B fair  mentality 

C poor  mentality 

D subnormal 

E moron* 

F imbecile 

G specialized  defective 

H . .  dull  from  somatic  causes 

I psychosis 

U unclassified 

An  individual  to  be  graded  "A"  must  show  rather  exceptional  abil- 
ity. He  must  possess  an  intelligence  capable  of  any  reasonable  training 
or  acquisition  with  that  width  of  mental  grasp  and  acuteness  of  thought 
characteristic  of  the  successful  professional  and  business  man.  A  specif- 
ic case  illustrating  this  type  is  number  4568,  who  is  twenty-seven  years 
of  age  and  of  Jewish- Russian  parentage.  He  was  born  in  Chicago  soon 
after  the  parents  arrived  in  the  United  States.  Having  completed  the  sec- 
ond year  high  school  and  reached  his  majority,  he  came  to  an  Indiana  city  to 
accept  a  position  as  manager  of  a  rather  important  firm.  He  was  pros- 
perous and  succeeding  well  with  his  work  when  one  day  the  opportunity 
came  to  appropriate  to  personal  use  several  hundred  dollars  of  the  com- 
pany's money.  The  investment  which  he  made  with  this  and  other 
money  which  he  had  saved  was  a  failure  and  consequently  he  could  not 
square  himself  with  the  firm.  For  this,  he  is  now  serving  time  for  em- 
bezzlement. Since  coming  to  the  Institution,  he  has  completed  a  course 
in  stenography  and  typewriting.  He  has  held  various  clerical  positions 
in  different  departments  of  the  Institution  and  acquitted  himself  com- 
petently. While  here  with  the  exception  of  an  attempt  fraudulently  to 
pass  mail  out  of  the  Institution,  his  record  has  been  good.  On  the 
examination  the  majority  of  the  tests  were  passed  with  ease  and  excel- 
lence. 

It  must  be  remembered  in  this  connection,  that  a  number  of  the  "A" 
individuals  have  not  had  as  much  school  training  as  the  above  example, 
while  others  have  had  more.  In  no  case,  however,  has  an  illiterate  been 
given  this  classification,  because  it  is  thought  that  a  person  in  this  day  of 
enlightenment  would  have  acquired  at  least  a  reading  and  writing  knowl- 
edge by  the  time  he  has  reached  sixteen,  which  is  the  admissable  age  re- 
quired by  this  Institution;  even  though  he  has  had  no  school  opportun- 
ities. 

An  individual  capable  of  high  school  training  and  college  work,  but 
with  a  more  or  less  limited  capacity  is  graded  "B. ' '  The  amount  of 
training  for  the  "B"  type  averages  less  than  for  the  "A",  butasin  "A" 
no  illiterate  has  been  graded  '  'B . "  Regardless  of  the  limited  school  oppor- 
tunities, one  of  this  mentality  should  be  able  to  pick  up  at  random  the 
simplest  processes  of  learning.  He  is  easily  capable  of  learning  a  trade  or 
business  towards  which  he  is  inclined,  but  often  finds  adaptability  and  ini- 
tiation to  new  work  a  trifle  difficult.  This  type  usually  drops  out  of  school 

*As  used  by  Goddard. 


about  the  eighth  grade  to  engage  in  business  or  learn  a  trade.  Occasion- 
ally, one  of  this  grade  has  had  mediocre  success  in  professional  or 
clerical  endeavors.  Number  5849,  who  is  nineteen  years  of  age,  classi- 
fies under  this  heading.  He  took  advantage  of  training  up  to  the 
seventh  grade  and  dropped  out  to  learn  the  tailor's  trade.  His  parents 
having  died  before  he  was  ten,  he  drifted  to  Indianapolis  where  bad  com- 
panionship aided  materially  in  causing  him  to  commit  the  crime  of  high- 
way robbery.  Since  his  arrival  at  the  Institution  he  has  been  doing 
good  work  in  the  tailor  shop  and  has  completed  the  eighth  grade  in 
school.  So  far,  his  institutional  record  is  good.  Upon  his  release  he 
will  likely  continue  through  life  at  his  chosen  trade. 

The  "C"  grade  represents  a  rather  distinctive  type  of  boy,  who 
has  made  little  success  at  learning  a  trade  or  conducting  a  business.  It 
is  only  very  rarely  that  a  profession  is  even  attempted .  In  school,  if  he 
reaches  high  school,  the  work  is  poorly  done.  Often  he  abandons  school 
rather  early  because  of  his  inability  to  cope  with  the  brighter  pupils  and 
the  subsequent  embarrassment  of  failure  in  promotion.  Only  in  extreme 
cases  is  an  illiterate  graded  "C."  This  type  is  able  to  learn  a  simple 
trade  that  requires  little  initiative .  It  is  frequent  that  one  of  this  class 
is  engaged  in  making  chairs  or  brooms,  or  in  learning  some  other  trade  of  a 
similar  nature,  which,  when  the  routine  is  once  established,  he  settles 
down  with  a  machine-like  attitude  and  is  perfectly  content.  A  good 
example  is  7938,  who  is  now  on  parole.  He  is  a  native  of  Scotland  and 
attended  school  there  until  he  withdrew  at  the  fourth  grade  after  having 
twice  failed  in  promotion.  At  the  age  of  twenty-one  he  came  to  the 
States  and  to  Indiana,  where,  until  his  commitment,  he  worked  in  a  coal 
mine.  While  at  the  Institution  he  made  fair  progress  in  school  up  to 
"percentage,"  when  he  was  withdrawn.  He  worked  at  moulding,  a  trade 
requiring  little  initiative  after  the  fundamentals  are  once  learned.  With 
the  exception  of  some  trouble  over  short  work,  his  institutional  record 
was  clear.  Upon  his  release  from  here,  he  took  work  in  a  factory  in 
Indianapolis  and  has  been  doing  well. 

The  "D, "  a  still  lower  type,  represents  the  borderline  between  poor 
mentality  and  definite  f eeble-mindedness.  This  fellow  rarely  learns  even  a 
simple  trade.  Only  infrequently  does  he  advance  as  far  as  the  sixth 
grade  and  is  often  illiterate.  This  is  the  type  that  usually  drifts  from 
trade  to  trade  and  from  job  to  job  because  he  is  unable  to  give  satisfac- 
tion to  his  employer.  He  profits  little  by  the  experience  he  has  had, 
finally  settling  down  to  general  labor  and,  if  physically  able,  is  content 
to  do  heavy  manual  work.  An  illustration  of  this  grade  is  number  2018, 
who  was  born  in  a  western  state  and  was  moved  about  by  his  parents 
until  they  settled  somewhat  permanently  in  this  State.  He  was  in  school 
five  or  six  years  but  only  reached  the  third  grade.  Before  his  commit- 
ment he  usually  worked  as  farm  hand,  and  had  been  arrested  twice  on 
minor  charges.  After  being  duped  into  burning  a  barn  for  a  man  who 
wished  to  collect  an  exorbitant  fire  insurance,  he  served  a  three-year 
term.  At  the  Institution,  he  was  withdrawn  from  school  after  having 
had  sufficient  opportunity  and  failing  to  make  satisfactory  advancement. 


In  his  work,  he  was  transferred  from  shop  to  shop  and  finally  assigned 
to  a  job  shoveling  coal.  Since  his  release,  he  has  been  giving  satisfac- 
tion as  farm  laborer  for  a  man  near  his  home. 

Our  "E"  grade  is  much  the  same  as  Goddard's  moron  type.  This 
fellow  usually  knows  something  of  the  simplest  processes  of  learning, 
but  very  frequently  is  illiterate.  He  never  learns  a  trade  and  sel- 
dom makes  a  good  work-hand,  because  of  the  close  supervision  required. 
A  good  example  of  this  type  is  number  4828,  a  colored  fellow  of  south- 
ern birth.  In  school,  he  barely  learned  to  read  and  write  and  to  do  the 
simplest  arithmetic.  At  the  age  of  eleven  when  his  mother  died  he 
wandered  away  from  home  and  found  work  on  a  railroad  section.  He 
went  from  place  to  place,  working  only  enough  to  buy  meagre  food  and 
raiment,  tramping  or  stealing  his  rides,  until  he  was  arrested  in  Evans- 
ville  for  felony  and  committed  to  this  Institution.  Since  his  arrival,  he  at- 
tended school  for  nearly  four  months  but  made  little  advancement.  He  has 
worked  at  various  places  in  the  Institution,  but  gave  best  satisfaction  as 
street  sweeper.  After  being  released  it  is  probable  that  he  will  mani- 
fest the  same  "wanderlust"  disposition  as  prior  to  coming  to  the  Institu- 
tion. 

The  newer  definition  of  the  imbecile  ("F"  class)  created  by  the 
Mental  Deficiency  Act*  of  the  English  Parliament,  correlates  more 
closely  with  our  classification.  The  definition  is  as  follows:  "Persons 
in  whose  case  there  exists  from  birth  or  from  an  early  age  mental  de- 
fectiveness  not  amounting  to  idiocy,  yet  so  pronounced  that  they  are 
incapable  of  managing  themselves  or  their  affairs,  or,  in  case  of  chil- 
dren, of  being  taught  to  do  so."  The  few  imbeciles  whom  we  have,  are, 
for  the  most  part,  of  a  higher  grade.  The  Institution  not  being  spe- 
cially prepared  to  handle  such  low  grades  of  mentality  fails  to  help 
them  very  much  in  any  way.  This  fellow  usually  comes  to  us  illiterate 
and  leaves  us  unchanged.  As  with  his  schooling  so  with  his  work- 
he  cannot  learn  a  trade.  A  good  example  of  this  type  is  number  5998, 
whose  father  died  early  leaving  a  large  family.  The  mother  and  chil- 
dren now  live  in  an  Indiana  city  and  the  former  washes  as  a  means  of 
support.  Subject  attended  school  for  a  short  time  only  and  withdrew 
because  he  could  not  learn.  Data  concerning  family  and  personal  his- 
tory were  difficult  to  obtain  from  him  because  of  low  mentality.  Prior 
to  coming  to  the  Institution,  he  worked  at  ordinary  labor  and  did  odd 
jobs  which  he  could  get  to  do.  He  was  committed  to  this  Institution  for 
attempting  to  commit  rape  upon  a  girl  six  years  of  age.  Soon  after 
his  arrival,  he  was  assigned  to  school,  but  given  up  as  uneducable,  being 
of  such  a  low  grade  that  he  could  not  even  learn  the  way  to  and  from 
school.  He  has  worked  at  various  light  laboring  jobs,  but  because  of 
unsatisfactory  results  was  assigned  to  the  "fresh  air  squad"  (a  group 
of  individuals  mentally  and  physically  unfit  for  regular  work) .  He  has  not 
been  refractory,  but  just  troublesome  and  worrisome.  When  released  from 
the  Institution,  he  will  again  be  a  burden  upon  society  and  will  likely  be- 
come prey  for  the  more  intelligent  and  less  conscientious  individuals. 

"Tredgold,  op.  cit. 


Our  "G"  classification,  the  "Specialized  Mental  Defective,"  refers 
to  the  individual  with  a  rather  permanent  defect  which  has  materially 
retarded  normal  development.  The  cause  of  the  defect  is  not  always 
overt  for  it  may  be  the  result  of  heredity,  early  environment,  an  acci- 
dent, or  combination  of  two  or  more  of  these.  An  example  of  Speci- 
alized Mental  Defective  is  number  3697,  who  has  an  unstable  attention, 
but  who  is  otherwise  normal.  There  is  a  case  of  petit  mal  that  we  have 
thus  classified.  There  is  a  deaf-mute  in  the  Institution  who  has  had  an 
eccentric  and  one-sided  development  and  consequently  cannot  well  be 
classified  under  a  normal  heading. 

Individuals  of  this  class  are  at  such  wide  variance  that  no  one  case 
can  be  cited  as  typical.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  these  are  special  cases 
and  must,  therefore,  receive  individual  diagnosis  and  treatment. 

With  the  "H"  group,  we  have  a  rather  temporary  and  purely  somat- 
ic handicap.  This  condition  may  be  brought  about  through  dissipation 
of  some  sort— alcohol,  "drugs,  "sexual  perversion,  being  more  common 
forms  of  it.  However,  if  the  abnormality  has  become  well  founded 
through  a  period  of  time,  then  a  more  or  less  permanent  derangement 
follows  and  the  subject  is  classified  under  another  heading.  Occasional- 
ly, a  fellow  passes  through  the  laboratory  who  has  not  fully  recovered 
from  a  major  operation  or  serious  disease,  e.  g.  syphilis.  In  any  case, 
there  must  be  an  allowance  made  for  such  incapacity  and  a  later  examina- 
tion held  before  a  definite  classification  can  be  given.  A  concrete  ex- 
ample in  this  case  is  unnecessary. 

The  "I, "  psychosis  type,  refers  to  any  marked  mental  degeneration 
or  perversion.  It  represents  mental  defect  and  insanity  versus  mental 
deficiency.  This  classification  includes  both  neuronic  degeneration  and  per- 
version of  neuronic  functioning.  One  of  the  chief  differences  between 
this  group  and  the  ament  group  is  in  origin:— the  former  developing 
largely  after  birth  and  the  latter  being  chiefly  ante-natal.  Tredgold*  com- 
pares the  dementia  and  perversion  group  to  an  individual  in  a  state  of  bank- 
ruptcy and  the  ament  group  to  an  individual  who  has  never  had  a  banking 
account.  A  person  coming  into  the  Institution  with  an  "I"  tendency  and  re- 
maining through  a  considerable  lapse  of  time,  usually  leaves  in  a  worse  con- 
dition. Through  observation,  it  appears  that  long  confinement  is  especi- 
ally harmful  to  a  disarranged  or  impaired  mind.  A  good  illustration  of 
the  psychosis  is  number  7698,  a  Virginia  negro,  who,  because  of  "wander- 
lust" left  home  early  and  drifted  about  until  he  was  committed  to  the  In- 
stitution on  a  felony  charge.  Before  leaving  home  he  made  fair  pro- 
gress in  school,  finishing  the  eight  grades.  On  the  outside  he  usually 
worked  at  hotels  for  short  periods  of  time  or  other  light  work  which 
he  could  obtain.  While  employed  at  a  hotel  in  Detroit  he  married,  but 
deserted  his  wife  after  a  short  time  because  of  pregnancy.  At  the  Re- 
formatory, as  previously,  he  made  unsatisfactory  progress  toward 
learning  a  trade  and  caused  considerable  disciplinary  trouble.  The 
mental  examination  was  passed  with  good  results.  Upon  entering  the 
Institution  he  was  a  syphilitic  and  later  had  an  attack  of  epilepsy. 
After  several  months,  perversion  of  neuronic  functioning  became  evi- 

*Mental  Deficiency. 

5 


dent  and  he  was  soon  afterwards  transferred  to  an  Indiana  insane  hos- 
pital. 

In  the  "U"  grade  we  place  all  who  were,  for  some  reason,  not  given 
a  satisfactory  trial.  This  may  have  been  due  to  unfamiliarity  with  Eng- 
lish; to  continued  interruption  from  without;  to  a  lack  of  time;  to  a 
break  in  the  examination;  or  to  a  lack  of  faithful  co-operation  on  the 
part  of  the  subject.  However,  of  the  two  thousand  cases,  there  were 
only  a  very  small  per  cent  that  were  graded  "U"  because  of  a  lack  of 
friendly  attitude  toward  the  examination.  In  a  large  majority  of  these 
cases  subjects  showed  anxiety  to  obtain  good  results  and  often  competi- 
tion could  be  used  to  good  advantage.  Once  in  a  great  while,  it  became 
necessary,  at  first,  to  do  a  little  prodding,  but  the  subject  usually  showed 
good  subsequent  interest  and,  on  the  whole,  obtained  normal  results. 

From  the  foregoing  institutional  cases,  it  may  be  seen  that  there  ex- 
ists a  vital  relation  between  the  type  of  intelligence  and  the  kind  of  vo- 
cation. When  one  has  learned  of  an  individual's  career  and  occupation, 
he  already  has  much  valuable  information  toward  a  correct  mental  diag- 
nosis. However,  it  must  be  remembered  that  infrequently  an  individ- 
ual's ambition,  because  of  some  misfortune,  is  turned  aside  and  conse- 
quently unrealized.  Yet,  if  the  elements  of  will  and  emotion  are  work- 
ing in  unison  with  those  of  intellect,  much  may  be  accomplished  in  the 
face  of  unfavorable  circumstances.  As  has  been  suggested  elsewhere, 
Experimental  Psychology  is  sadly  lacking  in  tests  and  data  for  the  emo- 
tional and  conative  factors. 

Tests  and  Their  Evaluation 

Considering  the  chronological  age  with  which  we  have  had  to  deal, 
the  Binet*  scale,  in  and  of  itself,  did  not  give  us  an  accurate  mental 
classification.  We  were  convinced  of  this  fact  during  the  early  history 
of  the  laboratory,  by  re-examinations  and  comparison  of  subject's  prog- 
ress in  school  and  in  learning  a  trade.  However,  this  scale  contains  sev- 
eral valuable  tests  that  have  been  used  by  us  with  a  fair  degree  of  suc- 
cess. Also,  the  lower  the  mental  type  the  more  of  the  scale  that  could 
be  advantageously  applied.  Of  these  tests  the  following  were  more 
frequently  employed: 

I.     From  Ten  Year  Tests 

1.  Drawing  design  from  memory 

2.  Repeating  digits 

3.  Forming  a  sentence  from  three  given  words 
II.     From  Eleven  Year  Tests 

1.  Forming  a  sentence  from  three  given  words 

2.  Free  association  (number  of  words  in  three  minutes) 
III.     From  Twelve  Year  Tests 

1.  Repeating  digits 

2.  Definition  of  three  abstract  words 

3.  Repeating  sentence  of  twenty-four  to  twenty-six  syllables 

*The  Goddard  revised  scale  was  used. 


IV.     From  Fifteen  Year  Tests 

1.  Changing  clock  hands 

2.  Code 

3.  Twenty  easy  opposites 
V.     From  Adult  Tests 

1.  Cutting  paper 

2.  Reversed  triangle 

3.  Difference  of  abstract  words 

It  may  be  well  to  indicate  at  this  juncture  how  the  various  types  of 
mentality  succeeded  with  the  above  tests.  All  of  these  tests  were  not 
given  each  person  examined,  but  occasionally  only  one  or  two  of  them; 
many  times,  even  more;  depending  entirely  upon  the  type  of  individual 
that  was  being  examined.  Also,  the  fact  cannot  be  too  strongly  im- 
pressed that  a  diagnosis  was  never  based  entirely  upon  the  Binet  alone 
without  the  aid  of  supplementary  tests.  Again,  the  clinician  soon 
finds  that  sharp  lines  cannot  be  adhered  to  in  diagnosis,  for  frequent- 
ly a  failure  occurs  with  a  comparatively  simple  task,  while  elsewhere, 
good  results  may  have  been  obtained.  Judgment  and  experience  are 
continually  taxed  in  rendering  a  fair  decision.  Consequently  what  may 
be  said  in  the  following  paragraphs  as  to  the  above  tests  and  their  rela- 
tion to  the  mental  type  is  only  suggestive  and  cannot  be  accepted  un- 
questionably en  masse. 

An  "A"  individual  will  usually  pass  all  of  the  above  tests.  On  the 
sixty-word  test,  he  scores  anywhere  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred 
and  fifty  words;  is  able  to  repeat  eight  to  ten  digits  and  frequently 
eleven;  does  the  code  without  any  previous  experience  with  the  Healy- 
Fernald*  "B  cross-line;"  but  may  fail  to  measure  up  to  the  standard  on 
one  or  two  of  the  Adult  tests. 

The  "B"  type  usually  passes  Fifteen,  with  the  exception  of  one  or 
two  in  this  year,  for  which  he  makes  up  in  the  Adult.  On  the  sixty-word 
test,  his  score  varies  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  words;  re- 
peats eight  or  nine  digits,  and  does  the  code  with  ease,  providing  the  "B 
cross-line"  has  first  been  given.  Depending  upon  the  individual's  pro- 
clivity, he  will  either  do  the  paper-cutting  test  or  give  the  differences  of 
abstract  words. 

The  "C"  may  miss  one  in  the  twelfth  year  and  possibly  two  in  the 
fifteenth,  averaging  better  than  Twelve,  but  rarely  as  high  as  Fifteen. 
With  the  sixty-word  test,  he  makes  a  score  between  seventy  and  one 
hundred;  he  repeats  seven  digits  and  occasionally  eight;  but  sometimes 
fails  to  repeat  twenty-six  syllables,  and  is  unable  to  succeed  with  the 
code.  He  may  either  do  the  easy  opposites  or  "change"  the  clock  hands. 

The  "D"  grade  usually  fails  on  one  or  two  of  each  of  the  eleventh 
and  twelfth  years,  but  may  possibly  succeed  with  one  from  the  fifteenth. 
He  either  barely  succeeds  with  the  sixty-word  test  or  fails  to  pass  it. 
The  successes  and  failures  in  repeating  seven  digits  are  about  equal.  He 
is  rarely  able  to  repeat  twenty-six  syllables,  and  failures  on  some  of  the 
simpler  tests  of  earlier  years  is  not  at  all  a  surprise. 

'Psychological  Monograph,  March,  1911,  Vol.  XIII. 


The  moron  or  "E"  usually  passes  two  or  three  of  the  eleventh  year 
and  occasionally  one  of  the  twelfth.  He  may  fail  on  one  or  more  of  the 
eight,  ninth,  and  tenth  years.  He  rarely  passes  the  sixty-word  test, 
but  may  repeat  six  digits.  He  cannot  repeat  twelve  syllables  correctly, 
and  often  fails  to  draw  the  geometrical  designs.  The  successful  efforts 
are  scattered  from  Seven  to  Twelve  inclusive.  As  a  general  rule,  the 
lower  the  type,  the  more  erratic,  inconsistent,  and  widely  scattered  are 
his  results. 

The  imbecile  or  "F"  type  fails  on  very  simple  tests  and  occasionally 
passes  one  that  causes  surprise.  For  example,  one  individual  who  was 
graded  as  imbecile,  named  more  than  a  hundred  words  on  the  free  as- 
sociation test.  His  responses,  qualitatively,  were  not  so  good,  for  they 
were  largely  automatic.  Our  "F"  type  usually  averages  about  Nine  on 
the  Binet  system. 

The  "G",  "H",  "I",  and  "U"  types  are  eccentric,  springing  all 
sorts  of  surprises  on  the  examiner  by  succeeding  where  success  was 
least  expected  and  failing  where  success  was  most  anticipated.  The  "G" 
shows  some  special  abnormality,  while  otherwise  functioning  is  just 
about  normal.  The  "H"  gives  results  depending  largely  upon  the  quan- 
tity and  quality  of  the  debility.  The  "I"  generally  shows  fair  to  good 
quantitative  results,  but  the  quality  is  often  poor.  This  is  seen  more 
clearly  in  the  association,  memory,  and  attention  tests.  The  Binet  scale 
is,  as  a  rule,  more  unsatisfactory  for  the  "U"  type  than  any  other. 

As  has  been  suggested,  the  supplementary  tests  were  found  abso- 
lutely essential  as  a  means  toward  an  accurate  diagnosis.  Virtually  every 
psychological  test  was  given  a  try-out  or  used  in  one  form  or  another. 
However,  eventually,  the  matter  was  sifted  down  to  a  few  tests  which 
were  peculiarly  adapted  to  our  purposes  and  which  have  since  been  in 
constant  use.  But,  nevertheless,  it  was  necessary  to  have  a  rather  wide 
selection  of  tests  at  hand  to  meet  the  requirements  of  such  widely  diver- 
gent types.  It  will  only  be  necessary  to  enumerate  and  evaluate  a  few 
of  the  more  important  supplementary  tests.  They  may  be  taken  in  the 
following  order: 

1.  A-test 

2.  Dot  test 

3.  Motor  co-ordination  test 

4.  Comprehension  or  understanding  printed  instructions 

5.  Inset  board 

6.  Instruction  box 

7.  Information 

8.  B  cross-line 

9.  Controlled  association 
10.  Aussage  test 

The  A-test  with  a  four-letter  variation  has  proved  to  be  very  valuable 
and  has  been  extensively  employed.  The  higher  types  performed  the  A- 
test  in  one  minute  and  fifteen  seconds  without  an  error.  But  this 
test  showed,  likewise,  poor  results  and  various  combinations  of  speed 
and  accuracy.  Whether  the  subject  emphasized  speed  or  accuracy  was 

8 


significant  in  the  diagnosis  of  the  case.  Also  if  more  mistakes  were 
made  in  the  beginning  of  the  test,  it  indicated  automatism;  if  more  mis- 
takes were  made  near  the  end,  it  showed  fatigue.  However,  this  feature 
was  only  accepted  in  a  general  way  and  was  usually  verified  by  other  tests. 

In  conjunction  with  the  A-test,  the  dot  test  was  many  times  given. 
This  was  brought  into  use  through  the  suggestion  of  Professor  Stevens 
of  the  University  of  Chicago.  The  arrangement  is  the  same  number  of  dots, 
in  the  same  position,  and  on  the  same  size  of  paper  as  the  A's  in  the 
above  test.  The  subject  was  first  given  the  A-test,  then  the  dot  test 
and  the  difference  in  time  would  be  the  time  of  perception,  since  the 
latter  test  requires  only  co-ordinated  movement  with  a  minimum  of  per- 
ception. The  best  types  averaged  thirty  seconds  for  the  dot  test. 

The  motor  co-ordination  test,  *  as  used  by  Doctors  Healy  and  Fernald, 
was  often  employed  to  a  good  advantage.  The  best  results  for  the  first 
trial,  were  one  hundred  and  fifteen  squares  without  an  error.  Generally 
speaking,  the  lower  the  type  of  individual,  the  more  sluggish  the  reac- 
tion and  the  more  inaccurate  the  results.  This  and  the  dot  test  have  a 
high  correlation. 

The  test  for  the  comprehension  or  understanding  of  printed  instruc- 
tions as  devised  by  Woodworth  and  Wells,*  was  modified  to  suit  our 
particular  needs.  The  test  as  employed  in  this  laboratory  consists  of 
forty-six  printed  sentences  to  be  interpreted  and  answered  or  completed 
by  the  subject.  This  test  is  more  valuable  for  the  fair  to  poor  mental 
types  who  can  handle  English  sufficiently  well.  The  best  score  was  made 
in  tw  o  minutes  and  ten  seconds  without  an  error. 

The  Inset  Board  as  designed  by  Dr.  Witner  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  has  been  used  during  the  past  year  with  a  fair  degree  of 
success.  It  makes  a  more  elaborate  and  more  advanced  test  than  the 
Goddard  Form  Board  and  has  the  advantage  that  it  can  be  satisfactorily 
given  to  a  wider  range  of  subjects.  Time,  only,  is  counted,  but  the 
method  of  procedure  which  is  very  important  is  always  noted.  There  is 
a  distinct  difference  in  method  of  approach  between  the  lower  and  higher 
types  of  intelligence.  Three  trials  are  given  and  the  best  average  to 
date  is  twenty-five  seconds.  Besides  its  value  as  a  purely  mental  test  it 
may  prove  to  be  an  aid  for  vocational  guidance. 

The  Instruction  Box*  as  suggested  by  Professor  Jastrow  and  de- 
signed by  Doctors  Hayes,  Healy  and  Fernald  has  given  satisfaction,  es- 
pecially with  the  higher  types.  The  best  results  average  twenty-five 
seconds,  one  trial  and  no  errors.  One  handicap  to  the  entire  success  of 
this  test  with  the  material  with  which  we  have  to  deal  is,  occasionally, 
a  subject  does  not  try  to  open  the  Instruction  Box  for  fear  of 
being  suspected  as  a  professional  "safe"  robber.  In  such  cases,  it  is 
evident  that  they  observed  the  similarity  between  the  arrangement  of 
this  test  and  regular  combination  safes.  Hence,  if  they  succeeded  with 
little  difficulty,  they  sometimes  conjectured  that  they  would  be  classed 
as  experts  in  the  crime,  the  manipulation  of  which  most  resembles  the 

•Psychological  Monograph,  March,  1911,  Vol.  XIIL 


performance  of  this  particular  test.     Generally  speaking,  however,  the 
boys  manifested  good  interest  and  good  effort  in  this  test. 

The  Information  test  was  planned  to  suit  the  needs  of  this  laboratory 
and  consists  of  thirteen  questions  to  be  answered  and  twenty-three 
words  to  be  explained.  They  concern,  largely,  present  day  places,  per- 
sons, and  events  which,  at  least,  should  be  common  knowledge.  This  is 
not,  however,  a  good  mental  test,  but  throws  light  upon  general  intel- 
ligence and  training,  showing  something  of  the  power  of  acquisition, 
retention,  and  general  interests.  Very  ridiculous  replies  are  often  given. 
It  is  not  uncommon  to  hear  that  Moses  is  the  father  of  Jesus;  that  the 
largest  city  in  the  world  is  some  town  in  Indiana;  or  that  Shakespeare 
was  a  great  general.  This  test  covering  such  a  wide  range  suggests 
many  things  concerning  the  individual's  training  and  environment,  in  ad- 
dition to  giving  information  as  to  subject's  general  intelligence. 

The  "B  cross-line"*  as  suggested  by  Doctor  MacMillan  and  em- 
ployed by  Healy  and  Fernald  has  been  especially  valuable  to  us  as  a 
preliminary  to  the  code  of  the  Binet  scale.  The  "A,"  "B,"  and  "C" 
types  nearly  always  succeed  with  this  test  without  much  difficulty,  and 
occasionally  even  a  lower  grade  may  execute  it  after  considerable  time 
and  effort.  Ordinarily,  the  test  was  not  given  to  the  lowest  and  highest 
types. 

For  theOontrolled  Association  test,  the  Kent-Rosanoff**  list  of  words 
was  used.  This  was  found  to  be  of  special  value  to  the  aberrant  and 
lower  mental  types.  Of  three  hundred  and  forty  cases  examined  the 
average  time  for  each  response  was  three  and  eight-tenths  seconds.  The 
per  cent  of  normal  reactions  ranged  higher  than  the  results  given  by 
Kent  and  Rosanoff  in  their  study  of  association  among  the  insane.  A 
statistical  statement  of  our  results  will  be  given  in  another  part  of  this 
paper. 

The  Aussage  or  Fidelity  of  Report  test,  as  originated  by  Sternf  and 
given  publicity  in  America  largely  through  Whipple's  Manual,  was  found 
to  be  of  general  importance  for  us.  It  was  usually  found  true,  as  was 
suggested  by  Binet,  that  the  higher  types  gave  a  more  comprehensive 
and  interpretative  report;  the  middle  types  gave  a  good  descriptive  re- 
port, but  not  so  comprehensive  and  full;  the  lower  type  did  little  more 
than  enumerate  some  of  the  things  that  had  been  seen.  The  lower  the 
intelligence,  generally  speaking,  the  more  suggestibility  was  displayed, 
which  was  also  a  characteristic  of  the  dementia  and  perversion  groups. 

In  addition  to  the  tests  designed  more  especially  for  mental  classifica- 
tion, several  educational  tests  were  used  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  a 
more  accurate  statement  of  subject's  previous  training.  There  are  at 
least  three  reasons  why  the  statement  of  the  inmate  could  not  be  entirely 
relied  upon  for  this  information.  "First,  school  systems  of  different 
states  and  countries  and  even  city  and  country  schools  in  the  same  local- 
ity vary  widely;  second,  many  subjects  are  unable  to  recall  accurately  when 
they  entered  school  or  how  long  they  were  in  attendance;  third,  amislead- 

*Paychological  Monograph,  March,  1911.  Vol.  XIII. 
** American  Journal  of  Insanity,  Vol.  67 
tBeitrage  zur  Psychologic  der  Aussage,  Leipzig,  1903-1906. 

10 


ing  statement,  for  some  reason  or  other,  was  sometimes  purposely  made. 
Besides  being  directly  valuable  for  school  classification  within  the  institu- 
tion, these  tests  were  helpful  in  a  general  way,  at  least,  toward  the 
mental  diagnosis.  The  following  tests  were  sufficiently  used  and  found 
to  be  of  practical  value:  Courtis*  Arithmetic  Tests,  "Measurement 
in  Efficiency  of  Reading,"  by  Starch;t  and  Trabue's$  Language  Scale. 
None  of  these  tests  has  been  in  use  by  us  more  than  eighteen  months 
and  consequently  we  have  not  obtained  a  great  deal  of  statistical  materi- 
al. From  casual  [judgment,  it  does  not  seem  that  there  will  be  any 
marked  differences  between  our  results  with  the  educational  tests  and 
the  results  of  the  originators  with  normal  individuals.  Our  subjects 
manifest  better  interest  for  the  arithmetic  and  language  scale  tests 
and  usually  with  better  subsequent  results. 

It  might  be  asked  just  why  the  preceding  tests  were  employed;  why 
others  were  not  used,  and  the  purpose  of  giving  each  individual  test. 
The  selection  of  tests  is  largely  determined  empirically.  They  answer 
the  demands  of  the  rather  unique  material  with  which  we  have  to 
deal,  and  give  us  a  fairly  accurate  mental  diagnosis.  The  aim  is  to 
have  the  examination  so  complete  that  the  entire  mental  life  will  be 
covered.  The  order  of  procedure  was  left  entirely  to  the  discretion  of 
the  examiner  and  depended  largely  upon  the  mentality  of  the  subject 
and  his  general  attitude  toward  the  examination.  Since  the  results  of 
each  test  are  given  in  the  preceding  statements  and  in  the  following  tables, 
and  more  especially  in  Table  IX,  further  elaboration  at  this  juncture  is 
unnecessary. 

If  one  should  inquire  why  each  test  was  given,  it  can  be  said  that 
they  have  served  the  purpose  intended  by  the  founder  of  the  particu- 
lar test.  To  illustrate,  the  Instruction  Box  told  us  something  of  the 
condition  of  memory  and  imagery,  ability  to  learn,  and  aptitude  in 
following  directions.  The  cutting  of  folded  paper  as  given  in  the  Binet 
scale  gave  us  an  insight  into  subject's  ability  to  reason,  perception  of 
form,  type  of  imagery,  and  general  mental  inclination.  Again  the 
Binet  code  gave  the  examiner  information  as  to  subject's  alertness, 
memory,  kind  of  imagery,  ability  to  plan  and  reason,  together  with  other 
information  of  a  minor  nature.  The  Inset  Board  showed  subject's  abili- 
ty in  correlation  and  association,  in  perception  of  form,  in  profiting  by 
experience,  in  planning  and  so  on.  Since  so  much  literature  has  been 
produced  concerning  the  various  tests,  it  would  be  trite  to  go  into 
further  detail  concerning  the  value  and  purpose  of  the  various  tests. 

Statistical  Statement 

It  is  the  aim  of  this  part  of  the  paper  to  give  in  a  succinct  manner 
some  of  the  results  obtained  from  our  examinations.  Many  other  possi- 
ble statistical  combinations,  which  might  have  been  given,  were  omitted 
for  want  of  space  and  time.  This  section  should  be  more  particularly  of 

'Department  of  Cooperative  Research,  Detroit,  Michigan. 
t Journal  of  Educational  Psychology.  January  1915,  Vol.  VI. 
^Bureau  of  Publication,  Columbia  University,  N.  Y. 

11 


interest  to  students  of  clinical  research.  The  order  in  which  the  tables 
are  numbered  and  appear  have  no  special  significance.  Sufficient  expla- 
nation will  be  added  in  connection  with  each  table  to  aid  the  reader  in  a 
ready  comprehension  of  the  material. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  individuals  of  each  mental 
grade  and  their  corresponding  chronological  age.  For  example,  of  the 
two  thousand  cases  examined,  there  were  eleven  individuals  who  were 
of  the  "A"  grade  and  sixteen  years  of  age;  twenty  of  the  "B"  grade 
who  were  sixteen;  thirty-five  of  the  "B"  grade  who  were  seventeen; 
etc.  The  percentages  of  each  mental  grade  and  chronological  age  are 
also  given. 

Table  I. 
Mental  Grade 
AGE     ABCDEFGHIU    Total     % 


C           16 

11 

20 

12       15 

11 

0 

1 

0 

1 

1 

72 

3.60 

h            17 

20  ( 

35 

33       13 

14 

0 

3 

1 

2 

1 

122 

6.10 

r            18 

25  J 

49 

39       26 

22 

0 

1 

2 

.    5 

4 

173 

8.65 

o            19 

28 

59 

42       23 

20 

1 

2 

3 

3 

7 

188 

9.40 

n            20 

30. 

46 

40       33 

17 

0 

1 

1 

0 

5 

173 

8.65 

o            21 

25* 

56 

41       36 

25 

2 

2 

2 

3 

5 

197 

9.85 

1             22 

28 

46 

49       30 

13 

1 

4 

4 

4 

5 

184 

9.20 

o            23 

27 

56 

40       29 

13 

0 

1 

2 

1 

6 

175 

8.75 

g            24 

20 

38 

32       25 

19 

1 

2 

1 

3 

4 

145 

7.25 

i             25 

17 

29 

24       22 

17 

0 

1 

2 

2 

4 

118 

5.90 

c            26 

18 

38 

20       22 

11 

0 

2 

2 

1 

2 

116 

5.80 

a            27 

15 

25 

23       19 

11 

0 

1 

0 

2 

6 

102 

5.10 

1             28 

14 

30 

25       18 

6 

0 

1 

4 

1 

8 

107 

5.35 

29 

12 

25 

15        15 

10 

1 

0 

3 

3 

1 

85 

4.25 

A           30 

4 

6 

3         5 

3 

1 

0 

1 

1 

1 

25 

1.25 

g            31 

0 

1 

3         1 

2 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

7 

.35 

e            32 

0 

2 

7         0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

2 

0 

11 

.55 

294 

561 

448     332 

214 

7 

22 

28 

34 

60 

2000 

lOO/o 

14.70  28.05 

22.40    16.6 

10.7 

.351. 

10 

1.4 

1.7 

3.0 

100 

% 

Table 

II. 

Kohs*  found 

the 

following  percentage  distribution  of  amentia: 

Idiots 

Imbeciles 

Morons 

Total 

Feeble-minded  and 

kindred  institutions 

1.07 

14.68 

14 

.74 

30.49 

In  penal  and  kindred 

institutions 

0.00 

0.55 

14 

.44 

14.99 

At  large 

0.33 

4.05 

50.16 

54.54 

Totals 

1.40 

19.28 

79.34 

100.02 

Our  results 

0.00 

0.35 

10.70 

11.05 

*The  Journal  of  Delinquency.  May,  1916. 


Approximately  thirty  per  cent  of  our  "D"  grade  are  high  grade 
morons  and  if  that  were  added  to  10.70,  our  "E"  grade,  the  results  would 
compare  favorably  with  what  Kohs  found  for  penal  and  kindred  institu- 
tions. 

It  can  be  observed  from  the  above  table  that  of  the  two  thousand  cases 
(counting  the  "U"  boys  as  having  fair  mentality)  fifty-four  per  cent  are 
graded  poor  mentality  or  lower;  while  less  than  fifteen  per  cent  are  good 
types.  More  than  eleven  per  cent  are  distinctly  feeble-minded,  while 
twenty  per  cent  are  in  the  borderline  or  doubtful  groups,  totaling  thirty- 
three  per  cent  as  either  subnormal  or  nearly  subnormal.  Practically  two 
per  cent  became  insane,  with  twice  that  number  developing  milder  cases 
of  dementia  and  perversion.  The  majority  of  the  three  per  cent  which 
were  unclassified  remained  so  because  of  their  inability  to  use  English, 
while  the  minority  of  these  remained  so  because  of  reconsideration  by 
the  court,  transfer,  death  or  some  other  similar  reason.  Of  the  two 
thousand  cases  nearly  ten  per  cent  are  twenty-one  years  of  age,  while 
nearly  fifteen  per  cent  grade  fair  mentality. 

Table  III. 

The  following  correlations  were  worked  out  on  a  basis  of  one  hun- 
dred cases,  which  were,  as  nearly  as  possible,  consecutive:  P.  E. 

1.  Inset  board  and  easy  opposites                                              .59  .0395 

2.  Inset  board  and  memory  for  digits                         «^9t>      .56  .0424 

3.  Inset  board  and  association  (sixty-word  test)      f           .73  .0260 

4.  Memory  for  digits  and  association  (sixty- word  test)        .63  .0356 

5.  Estimated  mentality  and  association  (sixty-word  test)    .83  .0164 

6.  Estimated  mentality  and  easy  opposites                             .75  .0239 

7.  Trabue  completion  test  and  easy  opposites                        .68  .0308 

8.  Trabue  completion  test  and  adding                                       .60  .0385 

9.  A-test  and  dot  test                                                                .68  .0308 

10.  A-test  and  easy  opposites  .55  .0433 

11.  A-test  and  comprehension  of  printed  page  .63  .0356 

12.  Dot  test  and  comprehension  of  printed  page  .65  .0337 
It  will  be  noted  from  the  above  table  that  association  tests  correlate 

rather  highly  with  mentality.  But  since  the  association  tests  were  used 
in  conjunction  with  other  tests  in  determining  the  mental  status,  this 
would  presuppose,  at  least,  some  correlation.  However,  considering  the 
large  number  of  tests  used  in  determining  mentality,  the  above  correla- 
tion still  must  be  fairly  accurate.  Mile.  Descoeudres*  with  feeble-minded 
children,  found  a  correlation  between  the  sixty-word  test  and  estimated 
intelligence  .50,  which  is  much  lower  than  our  results.  However,  this 
would  probably  be  accounted  for  by  diversity  of  conditions  and  subjects. 

Performance  on  the  Inset  board  correlates  higher  with  association 
tests  than  memory  tests,  and  this  is  what  one  should  really  expect,  when 
the  nature  of  the  tests  is  considered. 

Simpson**  found  a  correlation  of  .50  between  easy  opposites  and  the 

*Arde  Ps..  11,  1911,  351-375. 

"'Correlation  of  Mental  Abilities,  Columbia  Publication. 

13 


A-test,  which  is  not  as  high  as  the  above  results.  We  find  a  still  higher 
correlation  between  the  A-test  and  dot  test. 

Simpson  estimates  the  correlation  between  easy  opposites  and  in- 
telligence of  people  in  general  to  be  as  high  as  .82;  Bonser*  obtained  a 
correlation  of  .85;  Doctor  Weidensallf  at  Bedford  Hills  Reformatory, 
reports  .79;  while  our  results  show  .75. 

Between  the  Ebbinghaus  completion  test  and  easy  opposites,  Simp- 
son gives  a  .72  correlation;  while  between  the  Trabue  completion  test  or 
language  scale  and  easy  opposites,  we  find  a  .  68  correlation.  Our  results 
show  a  still  lower  correlation  between  Trabue  completion  and  adding 
tests. 

More  and  more  it  becomes  clear  that  there  is  no  marked  difference 
between  the  basic  mental  structure  of  the  delinquent  and  people  in  gen- 
eral. However,  there  are  more  aberrations  and  anomalies  of  function- 
ing among  criminals  than  people  in  normal  society.  Also,  special  de- 
fects are  more  common  and  more  varied  than  one  will  presumably  find 
among  people  of  a  similar  social  status  outside  of  prison.  Then  there 
are  the  many  anomalies  of  will  and  emotion  that  must  be  considered,  for 
they  play  a  very  important  role  in  the  life  of  a  criminal.  The  foregoing 
statements  are  evidenced  by  the  preceding  correlations,  the  various 
tables  given  (especially  Tables  II  and  III),  and  the  delinquent's  reaction 
to  the  various  tests.  Also  such  conclusions  are  corroborated  by  one's 
general  experience  and  observation  with  the  criminal  class.  As  Have- 
lock  EllisJ  says,  "The  criminal  in  some  of  his  most  characteristic  mani- 
festations is  a  congenitally  weak-minded  person,  whose  abnormality, 
whilst  by  no  means  leaving  the  mental  aptitudes  absolutely  unimpaired, 
chiefly  affects  the  feelings  and  volition,  so  influencing  conduct  and 
rendering  him  an  anti-social  element  in  society."  Dr.  Goring  in  his 
book,  "The  English  Convict", §  epitomizes  as  follows:  "Our  final  con- 
clusion is— that  the  one  vital  mental  constitutional  factor  in  the 
etiology  of  crime  is  defective  intelligence. ' '  After  all,  what  has  some- 
times been  designated  as  moral  idiocy  or  moral  imbecility  may  prove  to 
be,  upon  more  careful  diagnosis,  a  result  of  some  mental  defect.  It  may 
be  poor  judgment,  weak  will  or  some  anomaly  of  emotion  or  some  ab- 
normal combination  of  two  or  more  of  these.  In  the  case  of  habitual 
criminals,  Tredgold§§  says:  "In  some  it  may  be  a  defect  of  judgment, 
in  others  a  weakness  of  volition,  in  others  a  derangement  of  the  associa- 
tive and  ideational  functions,  leading  to  the  presence  of  irresistable  im- 
pulses; but  that  some  degree  of  mental  defect  is  present  can  hardly  be 
doubted,  since  the  individual  is  quite  incapable  of  foregoing  a  momen- 
tary satisfaction  for  a  permanent  advantage."  Barring  the  criminal  by 
accident  or  mishap,  all  other  delinquents,  and  especially  recidivists, 
surely  have  some  sort  of  mental  defect,  overt  or  recondite. 

•Reasoning  Ability  of  Children,  Columbia  Publication. 
tWhipple's  Manual,  Volume  II,  page  85. 
*The  Criminal,  Walter  Scott.  London,  1902. 
§Darling  and  Son,  London,  1913. 
§§Mencal  Deficiency. 

14 


Table  IV. 

Norms  from  Two  Hundred  Inmates 

Coef .  of         RANGE 
Mean      S.  D.  Variability  Poorest  Best 

Memory  span  (auditory  digits)  7. 18  digits  . .  1. 08     .15 5 11 

Cancellation,  A-test  (five  sec- 
onds added  for  each  error) .  ..133.8 27.90       .20 227  ...  .82 

Sec. 
Cancellation,  dot 

test  (one  hundred  reactions) .  .51.8 10.19       .19 98. .  .  .33 

Association,    sixty-  Sec. 

word  test  (three  minutes 77.86 19.70        .25 43.  .  .150 

allowed)  words 

Comprehension  (ten 

seconds  added  for  each 396.9 107.20        .27 685. .  .143 

error)  Sec. 

Inset  (average  of 46.28 13.40        .28 94.7.  .25 

three  trials)  Sec. 

Tapping  (average  of 

three  thirty-second  trials) ....  198. 4 25. 60         .12 75. 4 . 310. 2 

Comparing  the  results  of  Table  IV  with  other  similar  investigations, 
there  is  a  variance,  but  not  as  wide  as  one  might  have  suspected.  For 
instance,  the  score  for  tapping,  198.4,  is  not  so  far  below  220.4,  which 
Wells*  gives  for  normal  individuals  who  were  near  the  limit  of  practice. 
BinghamJ  gives  a  higher  median  (211.6)  for  college  freshmen  with  a 
closer  range  (151.8  to  278.4),  which  compared  with  the  above  results 
shows  inmates  to  be  of  more  divergent  types. 

But  for  memory  span  of  digits  we  found  a  slightly  higher  central 
tendency  with  a  narrower  range  than  Bingham,$  who  reports  a  median 
of  seven  and  range  of  five  to  twelve  for  Dartmouth  Freshmen.  As  early 
as  1887  Jacobs**  reported  for  younger  individuals  a  memory  span  for 
auditory  digits  ranging  from  6.6  to  8.6  with  an  approximate  average  of 
7.6.  Again  the  mean  is  higher  with  a  narrower  range  than  for  our  sub- 
jects. So  with  the  majority  of  the  results  from  Table  IV,  it  is  clear 
that  there  usually  exists  a  rather  wide  range  with  a  more  normal  central 
tendency. 

Table  V  a. 

The  Kent-Rosanoff  stimulus  words  were  given  to  three  hundred  and 
forty  inmates  of  Indiana  Reformatory  with  the  following  results: 

?F.  L.  Wells,  Normal  Performance  in  Tapping  Test,  Amer.  Journal  of  Psych.,  19,  1908. 
*W.  V.  Bingham.  Some  Norms  of  Dartmouth  Men-Jour'l  of  Ed.  Psych.,  March,  '16. Vol.  VII. 
"Experiments  in  'Prehension',  Mind  12;  1887. 

15 


Mentality  Number         %  Common          %  Doubtful         %  Individual 

of  Cases          Reactions  Reactions  Reactions 

A..  ..49..  ..85.83..  ..2.O..  ..12.17 

B 95       84.47 2.2 13.33 

C 75 83.55 2.1 14.35 

D 58 81.24 4.2 14.56 

E 36 74.28 3.8 21.92 

Misc 27 77.15 4.1 18.75 

The  number  of  failures  was  a  minimum  as  a  result  of  returning  to 
the  stimulus  word  after  the  entire  list  of  one  hundred  words  had  been 
given.  What  few  failures  occurred  were  counted  in  the  ' 'doubtful"  re- 
action class.  The  above  results  compare  favorably  with  the  results  ob- 
tained by  Eastman  and  RosanoffJ,  who  report  84.00%  common  reactions 
from  their  study  of  delinquents.  Our  results  show  that  the  lower  the 
type  of  intelligence  the  lower  the  per  cent  of  individual  reactions.  Ex- 
perimenters are  generally  agreed  that  children  give  a  larger  number  of 
individual  reactions  than  adults,  which  may  be  additional  proof  that 
there  is  a  very  close  relationship  between  the  chronologically  older  indivi- 
dual who  is  feeble-minded  and  a  child;  and  that,  after  all,  it  is  the  mental 
age  that  is  significant.  Kent  and  Rosanoff$$  found  a  larger  per  cent  of 
common  reactions  among  normals  and  a  smaller  per  cent  of  doubtful  and 
individual  reactions  than  our  results  show.  This  probably  indicates 
nothing  more  than  that  our  average  intelligence  is  lower  than  the  average 
intelligence  of  the  subjects  used  by  them.  For  the  insane,  Kent  and 
Rosanoff  found  only  70.7%  "common"  reactions  which  is  lower  than  for 
our  poorest  grades. 

Table  V  b. 

The  following  table  shows  the  chronological  age  distribution  for  the 
Kent-Rosanoff  association  test: 

Chronological  Number   of  %  Common 

Age  Cases  Reactions 

16 14 83.37 

17 19 77.38 

18 29 74.73 

19  32 80.11 

20 29 76.42 

21 35 79.33 

22 31 80.04 

23 .30 83.05 

24..  ..26..  ..81.83 


25 

22 

78.25 

26  

20  

85.43 

27  

17  

80.55 

28 

18 

87.22 

29 

14 

82.71 

30.. 

..4.. 

..84.00 

#  Association  in  Feeble-Minded  and  Delinquent  Children,  Am.  J.  Ins.  69;  1912. 
tt  Association  among  the  Insane,    Am.  J.  Ins.  67;  1910. 

16 


Glancing  over  the  preceding  table  it  may  be  seen  that  there  is,  at 
least,  no  vital  relation  existing  between  the  chronological  age  and  the 
quality  of  the  response;  being  in  contrast  with  table  Va  where  there  is 
more  or  less  definite  relation  between  the  nature  of  the  response  and 
the  mental  age  of  the  individual. 

Table  V  c. 

Average  time   of  response  for  each  grade. 

Grade  Av.  Time  in  Seconds. 

A 2.65 

B 3.00 

C 3.56 

D 3.87 

E 4.05 

F 5.15 

Miscellaneous 4.82 

Average  3.87 

The  average  reaction  time  for  our  best  types  with  the  Kent-Rosanoff 
association  test  is  higher  than  what  Whipple*  found  for  college  students. 
He  gives  a  range  of  average  times  between  1.00  and  2.75  seconds.  When 
a  more  intelligent  inmate  gave  a  slower  response,  it  was  usually  true  that 
such  response  was  planned,  which  naturally  required  more  time.  Ordinar- 
ily, however,  with  the  lower  mental  types  association  time  was  slower  with 
the  possible  exception  where  erratic  or  automatic  responses  were  given. 

Table  VI  a. 

The  following  table  shows  the  average  reaction  time  for  performance 
on  the  Inset  Board  for  each  grade  of  mentality.  These  results  are  com- 
puted on  a  basis  of  five  hundred  individuals  and  the  average  of  three 
consecutive  trials  for  each  individual  was  recorded. 

Mentality  Number  of  Average  in 

cases  seconds 

A 75 43.2 

B 175 48.2 

C 125 52.4 

D 55 66.1 

E 30 92.7 

Misc 40 57.6 

There  is  a  rapid  rise  in  the  time  curve  from  "D"  to  "E"  and  a  minor 
rise  from  "C"  to  "D."  As  there  are  no  other  results  available  for  the  In- 
set Board,  the  comparison  must  be  omitted.  Future  investigation  will  prob- 
ably corroborate  the  above  results  by  showing  a  fair  correlation  be- 
tween performance  on  the  Inset  Board  and  estimated  intelligence.  As 
was  shown  in  Table  III,  our  results  give  a  fair  correlation  between  this 
and  the  better  established  mental  tests. 

'Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests. 

17 


Table  VI  b. 

Average  deviation  is  computed  on  a  basis  of  fifty  from  each  grade  of 
mentality. 

Mentality  A.  D.  in  seconds 

A 5.6 

B 11.4 

C 9.1 

D 13.4 

E 35.4 

Misc 13.6 

Generally  speaking  the  deviation  is  less  for  higher  types,  showing  the 
tendency  to  aberration  of  the  lower  grades.  If  there  is  any  difference 
in  the  time  of  the  manipulation  of  the  Inset  Board  in  relation  to  the 
chronological  age,  the  younger  boys  showed  a  tendency  towards  lower  av- 
erage of  time.  The  average  time  for  sixteen  and  seventeen  years  was 
58.4  and  49.8,  respectively;  while  for  twenty -nine  and  thirty  years,  the 
average  was  63.5  and  64.2,  respectively.  Elsewhere,  the  probable  out- 
look for  the  Inset  Board  has  been  suggested;  however,  the  standardiza- 
tion which  is  to  follow  shortly  will  give  us  an  insight  into  its  value  as  a 
mental  test. 

In  a  general  way,  there  exists  a  relationship  between  the  type  of  in- 
telligence and  the  kind  of  criminal  activity.  Through  continued  observa- 
tion, it  is  found  that  the  lower  grades  of  intelligence  engage  largely  in 
petty  thievery;  the  more  brutal  assaults,  in  one  form  and  another;  arson; 
unnatural  sex  offenses ,  etc. ;  while  higher  grades  are  committed  on 
charges  of  forgery,  embezzlement,  coining,  manslaughter,  and  horse- 
stealing.  However,  this  alone  could  not  be  counted  upon  as  a  safe  crit- 
erion for  intelligence,  for  justice  is  often  so  canny  and  laws  and  courts, 
in  different  sections,  are  at  such  wide  variance  that  this  theory  is  not  al- 
ways reliable.  Yet,  often  the  type  of  crime  correlates  well  with  the  type 
of  intelligence  and  for  less  authoritative  purposes,  is  valuable  informa- 
tion for  the  diagnostician.  Again,  if  the  same  offense  is  commited  by 
widely  divergent  mental  types;  with  the  higher  type  the  monetary  or  ad- 
vantage consideration,  as  a  rule,  is  much  larger  for  the  more  intelligent 
individual.  In  this  connection  Dr.  Goring*  gives  the  following  results. 

Table  VII. 

Of  those  committing  various  offenses,  the  following  per  cents  are 
mentality  defective: 

% 

Firing  stacks 52.9 

Doing  willful  damage  to  property  or 

maiming  animals 22.2 

Arson 16.7 

Rape 15.8 

Robbery 15.6 

•The  English  Convict,  Darling  &  Son;  London.  1913. 

18 


Unnatural  sex  offenses 14.3 

Blackmail 14.3 

Fraud 12.8 

Stealing 11.2 

Burglary 10.0 

Murder 9.5 

Receiving  stolen  goods 5.1 

Manslaughter 5.0 

Coining 3. 3 

Striking  superior  officer 2.7 

Forgery  and  embezzlement 0.0 

In  comparison  with  Table  VII,  we  have  computed  the  following  re- 
sults, from  a  study  of  five  hundred  cases  based  upon  the  more  frequent 
crimes.  The  "F"  type  and  miscellaneous  groups  ("G,"  "H,"  "I,"  and 
"U, ")  occur  so  infrequently  and  for  the  latter,  especially,  the  results 
were  so  erratic  that  these  grades  were  omitted  in  the  computation  of 
this  table. 

Table  VIII. 

ABODE 

Assault  and  battery  to  kill..  1.2  3.1  1.2  9.2  4.6 

Grand  larceny 25.0  26.1  16.6  11.1  11.1 

Petit  larceny 24.3  41.1  42.8  39.1  57.5 

Burglary 2.5  1.0  7.1  3.7  -  7.6 

Felony 13.9  7.3  15.4  12.9  7.6 

Forgery 17.7  9.6  5.9  3.7  4.6 

Robbery 7.5  3.1  2.4  7.4  2.4 

Rape 1.2  2.1  2.7  7.4  4.6 

Manslaughter  0  2.1  3.5  3.7  .0 

Receiving  stolen  goods 1.2  2.1  1.2  1.8  .0 

Embezzlement 1.8  1.4  1.2  .0  .0 

Horse  stealing 3.7  1.0  .0  .0  .0 

Glancing  at  Table  VIII,  it  will  be  observed  that  from  "A"  to  "E" 
there  is  a  gradual  increase,  though  not  always  uniform,  in  such  crimes 
as  assault  and  battery  to  kill,  petit  larceny,  burglary,  rape,  and  man- 
slaughter; while  there  is  a  gradual  falling  off  in  the  number  of  cases  of 
grand  larceny,  forgery,  embezzlement,  and  horse  stealing.  Of  the  other 
crimes  mentioned  in  the  preceding  table,  there  is  an  indication  of  the  ab- 
sence of  correlation,  and  of  these,  consequently,  prediction  is  less  certain. 
In  the  main,  however,  the  results  of  this  laboratory  agree  with  those  of 
Dr.  Goring,  though  very  different  the  methods  of  estimating  intelligence 
and  widely  divergent  the  customs  of  conviction  and  punishment  for  the 
same  offense  may  have  been.  Statistics  of  this  nature  are  only  meant  to 
be  suggestive  and  not  to  be  accepted  verbatim  as  entirely  authoritative. 

The  following  table  gives  a  cross-section  of  a  general  relation  found 
to  exist  between  test  performance  and  grade  of  mentality.  The  perpen- 
dicular columns  give  an  estimate  of  how  the  various  types  usually  suc- 
ceed with  the  different  tests. 

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20 


The  preceeding  table  is  given  in  this  condensed  form  only  for  the 
convenience  of  the  reader.  It  does  not  make  any  dogmatic  claims, 
whatsoever;  neither  is  it  by  any  means  the  last  word.  It  only  modestly 
aims  to  predict,  in  a  general  way,  what  some  of  the  reactions  of  the  var- 
ious grades  of  mentality  may  be  when  called  upon  to  respond  to  stimuli 
arising  from  a  few  of  the  more  common  tests.  Of  the  miscellaneous 
groups  ("G,"  "H,"  "I,"  and  "U"),  their  results  are  so  widely  diverg- 
ent and  erratic  that  their  performance  cannot  even  be  approximately 
indicated,  and,  consequently,  these  have  been  omitted  from  the  above 
table. 

In  addition  to  the  special  mental  attributes,  there  are  certain  dis- 
tinctive characteristics  common  among  criminals  which  for  want  of  bet- 
ter terminology  may  be  called  "personal  traits."  Of  these,  the  more 
prominent  ones  are  egotism,  resignation  or  fatalism,  and  sex  perversion 
and  unnatural  love  affairs.  These  are  largely  brought  about  by  an  un- 
favorable home  environment  and  the  abnormal  conditions  which  confine- 
ment necessitates.  As  to  egotism,  they  are  not  modest  in  speaking  of 
themselves,  of  their  physical  strength,  and  their  mental  ability.  They 
are  willing  to  take  a  chance  at  some  occupation  though  it  be  consider- 
ably above  their  ability  to  execute.  The  spirit  of  adventure,  which  is 
closely  allied  to  egotism,  is  not  uncommon  and  is  apparent  when  they 
not  only  show  willingness  but  anxiety  to  work  in  positions  requiring 
great  hazard  and  risk.  Also,  they  may  be  seen  imperiling  themselves 
unnecessarily  by  climbing  a  guy  or  walking  a  narrow  timber  many  feet 
above  the  ground.  But  the  spirit  of  adventure  is  accounted  for  largely 
by  the  fact  that  a  life  of  crime  is  one  of  risk  and  chance.  When  a  delin- 
quent steals  a  coat  worth  ten  dollars,  he  gambles  on  his  ability  to  elude 
detection  and  the  value  involved  against  one  to  eight  years  imprisonment. 
Or  he  may  forge  a  check  fora  considerable  sum  and  in  this  case  he  wagers 
the  amount  of  the  check  with  the  vigils  of  peace  and  order  against  two 
to  fourteen  years  that  he  will  not  be  apprehended.  So,  we  have  the 
spirit  of  risk  and  adventure  which  is  often  coupled  with  the  egotistic 
trait,  playing  a  prominent  role  in  the  life  of  crime. 

Another  personal  trait,  resignation  or  in  a  more  complete  form  fatal- 
ism, is  especially  characteristic  of  the  recidivist.  They  show  little  sor- 
row or  regret  when  they  are  told  by  the  Board  that  they  must  remain 
another  year  before  being  released  from  prison.  They  rather  consider 
this  one  of  the  decisions  of  the  inevitable,  and  patiently  await  the  hour 
when  by  some  turn  of  fate  good  fortune  will  be  theirs.  They  feel  they 
are  what  they  are  because  the  hand  of  predestination  so  decreed  and  are 
content  to  continue  in  what  they  believe  to  be  their  calling  in  life, —a 
criminal  career. 

Lastly,  of  the  personal  traits,  sex  perversion  and  unnatural  love  play 
a  very  important  role  among  imprisoned  individuals.  All  forms  of  per- 
version, inversion  and  unnatural  sex  gratification  are  practiced  regard- 
less of  the  grade  of  intelligence.  However,  as  a  rule,  the  lower  mental 
types  are  guilty  of  what  is  commonly  recognized  as  the  more  degraded  sex- 
ual abnormalities  or  irregularities.  It  is  not  infrequent  that  two  boys 

21 


develop  a  very  serious  love  affair,  one  playing  the  role  of  a  Romeo  and 
the  other  of  a  Juliet,  with  the  same  earnestness,  fervor  and  painstaking 
interest  that  one  sees  daily  between  two  individuals  of  opposite  sex. 

Conclusion 

The  general  tendency  of  this  dissertation,  with  its  rather  varied  com- 
pilation of  statistics,  points  to  the  fact  that  there  is  no  marked  overt 
difference  between  the  .mind  of  a  criminal  and  an  individual  of  a  similar 
social  status  in  normal  society.  .Ihe-  argument  of  the  foregoing  -  state- 
ment is  sustained  by  the  results  of  the  tests  given  in  the  various  tables 
{especially  Table  II  and  context  following  Table  III)-.  It  is  evident, 
however,  that  criminals  as  a  group  have  a  lower  average  mentality  than* 
an  average  group  outside  of  prison.  Also  there  are  more  eccentricities 
and  anomalies  in  mental  functioning,  especially  in  the  fields  of  will  and 
emotion,  than  we  find  under  normal  conditions.  This  is  either  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  abnormal  life  which  prison  induces  has  made  them 
so;  or  being  of  such  a  type  made  it  more  easy  for  their  apprehension  and 
conviction  while  possibly  their  neighbor,  because  of  being  more  favorably 
endowed,  was  able  to  escape.  The  latter  reason  has  often  been  pro- 
duced as  a  justification  for  the  fact  that  the  prison  population  some- 
times shows  a  lower  average  in  mentality  than  can  be  found  in  the 
normal  population.  In  this  connection,  it  should  also  be  remembered 
that  the  lower  the  mental  types,  as  a  rule,  the  more  common  are  aber- 
rations in  the  fields  of  intellect,  will  and  emotion,  or  an  abnormal  com- 
bination of  two  or  more  of  these. 

Long  imprisonment  has  a  tendency  to  accentuate  the  anomalies  and 
eccentricities  of  mental  functioning  already  mentioned  and  to  precipi- 
tate the  conditions  of  dementia  and  mental  perversion  of  those  so  in- 
clined; on  the  other  hand  it  has  little  effect  on  the  mental  condition  of 
prisoners  of  so-called  normal  mentality  and  the  ament  and  near-ament 
groups. 

In  a  general  way,  our  statistics  show  a  relation  between  the  kind  o 
crime  and  the  type  of  intelligence.  With  the  lower  types,  the  offenses 
committed  usually  involve  trivial  sums  and  minor  reasons  for  provocation. 
More  concretely,  it  is  not  uncommon  fora  "D"  or  "E"  type  to  be  com- 
mitted for  manslaughter  arising  over  some  insignificant  misunderstand- 
ing; while  an  "A"  type  may  be  committed  for  the  same  offense  on 
which  the  fundamental  principles  of  virtue  and  manhood  were  involved. 
Of  course,  it  would  not  be  a  safe  criterion  to  base  a  diagnosis,  alone, 
upon  the  kind  of  crime  of  which  an  individual  was  guilty,  but  certainly 
the  kind  of  crime  arid  especially  the  conditions  under  which  it  was  com- 
mitted bespeak  much  as  to  the  type  of  intelligence . 

As  has  already  been  stated,  one's  vocation,  or  the  lack  of  it,— or  in 
short,  one's  industrial  career— is  indicative  as  to  the  type  of  intelli- 
gence. Nor  here,  would  it  be  safe  to  conclude  that  because  an  individual 
has  worked  at  a  certain  occupation,  he  belongs  to  a  certain  mental  type, 
yet  such  information  throws  considerable  light  upon  his  general  charac- 

22 


teristics  and  is  even  valuable  as  an  aid  toward  a  correct  mental  diagnosis. 
Barring  the  criminal  by  accident  or  mishap,  it  is  at  least  a  fair  pre- 
sumption to  say  that  all  criminals  have  some  sort  of  defect;  but  such  de- 
fects are  often  so  recondite  that  not  until  well  planned  verified  and 
standardized  tests  of  will  and  emotion  are  brought  into  conjunction  with 
even  better  planned  intellectual  tests,  shall  we  be  able  to  accurately 
diagnose  and  judiciously  prescribe  for  our  delinquent  brother. 


23 


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